Phytotherapeutic Use of Indigenous North American Plants: Cedar, Sage, & Sweetgrass
Jolene A. Witvoet, Emaan Butt, John W. Michelis, and Katelyn Daigle
Undergraduate Students, University of Guelph
Abstract
The four sacred medicines in Indigenous culture—cedar (Thuja occidentalis), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), sage (Salvia genus), and sweetgrass (Anthoxanthum nitens subsp.)—are commonly used due to their medicinal properties and cultural significance. This review focuses on cedar, sage, and sweetgrass, examining their roles in purification treatments, healing ceremonies, and land-based activities. Historically, they have been used for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties to treat mild and severe medical conditions, such as colds, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease. Information about their unique bio composition is emphasized by Indigenous traditional knowledge and supported by modern research. Commonly used as remedies in the form of oils, teas, and smudging, these plants are integrated in the physical, mental, and environmental dimensions of Indigenous communities, ensuring they reclaim their cultural heritage. Despite their cultural and medicinal importance, a lack of recognition remains for Indigenous traditional knowledge being incorporated into scientific research/findings. Through the integration of ecological context, traditional knowledge, and scientific findings, this review provides a comprehensive assessment of the phytochemical, spiritual, and medicinal importance of cedar, sage, and sweetgrass in relation to the world of modern medicine.
1. Introduction
Cedar (Thuja occidentalis), sage (Salvia genus), and sweetgrass (Anthoxanthum nitens subsp.) are three out of the four sacred medicines within the Indigenous medicine wheel, a wheel focused on the holistic wellness of individuals (AIHSC, 2025). Due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and pharmacological properties, these plants have been used in North American Indigenous cultures for generations for their medicinal and spiritual uses in daily life and ceremonies (AIHSC, 2025). Terpenes, phytochemicals, and phenolic compounds are examples of medicinal components in these plants that contribute to the therapeutic effects sacred within Indigenous communities (Manisha et al, 2025). Cedar, sage, and sweetgrass are often prepared in oils, teas, or smudging bundles and represent purification, protection, and strength (Manisha et al, 2025). Though the therapeutic uses originated from traditional Indigenous knowledge (AIHSC, 2025), these plants have received scientific attention and become incorporated into modern medicinal treatments, however sometimes without proper recognition (Manisha et al, 2025). This review aims to provide a deeper understanding of the medicinal properties and effects of cedar, sage, and sweetgrass, focusing on their botany, medicinal properties, spiritual significance, and application in modern medicine, while also expressing concern about the ethical challenges that arise through the integration of Indigenous traditional knowledge in the modern world of pharmaceutical medicine (Manisha et al, 2025).
2. Cedar(Thuja occidentalis)
2.1 Physiological Characteristics
Thuja occidentalis, commonly known as Eastern white cedar, Northern white cedar, or swamp cedar, is a small, hardy, slow-growing tree found throughout Ontario and much of Eastern Canada (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014). On average, T. occidentalis reaches 15 m in height and 30 cm in diameter (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014). T. occidentalis has small, flat, scaly needles which cover fan-shaped twigs and are yellow to green in colour (Figure 1) (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014). When young, the bark of T. occidentalis is shiny and thin, but as it ages, it develops into narrow and flat strips of thicker bark (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014). As a member of the conifers, T. occidentalis has cone fruits, which are usually 7–12 mm long and grow in clumps of five to six pairs of cones (Figure 1) (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014). T. occidentalis typically grows in moist, shady, and swampy areas, commonly referred to as “cedar swamps” (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2014).
Figure 1. Close up of Thuja occidentalis green leaves and premature cones (Tresse, 2024)
2.2 Cultural and Spiritual Significance
T. occidentalishas long been an important medicine used by indigenous peoples of North America as part of the medicine wheel (AIHSC, 2025).T. occidentalis is known in Anishinaabemowin as Giizhik (The Ojibwe People’s Dictionary, 2021) and sits at the northern doorway of the medicine wheel (The Gord Downie & Chanie Wenjack Fund, 2022). The northern doorway is associated with winter, the spirit, elders, wisdom, and rest (The Gord Downie & Chanie Wenjack Fund, 2022). In many Indigenous North American oral traditions, T. occidentalis is referred to as a “grandmother” figure (see The Origin of Cedar, The Grandmother Medicine, told by: Ogimaa Wab) (AIHSC, 2025).
2.3 Uses in Traditional Medicine
Indigenous peoples have long used T. occidentalis to treat a multitude of conditions, such as rheumatism, where a leaf poultice is applied; coughs, where a syrup made from leaves and inner bark is ingested (Thakur et al., 2023); and fungal infections, where a tincture, salve, or oil is used (AIHSC, 2025). As well, T. occidentalis can help to treat amenorrhea, uterine cancer, filiform warts, bronchitis, cystitis, psoriasis, and liver disease (Thakur et al., 2023).
Tea prepared with the leaves and bark of T. occidentalis has also been used to treat headaches, constipation, and scurvy (Storm, G.L., & Kenefic, L.S., 2022). It was the latter use that the Haudenosaunee peoples shared with Jacques Cartier in 1535 that became a catalyst for wider European knowledge of the medicinal potential of T. occidentalis (Storm, G.L., & Kenefic, L.S., 2022). When his crew had scurvy, knowledge of T. occidentalis treatments was shared, and Cartier’s crew harvested all the branches from a single white cedar tree within a week, causing it to die (Storm, G.L., & Kenefic, L.S., 2022). This harvesting practice goes directly against Indigenous teachings on how to collect and use T. occidentalis respectfully (The Gord Downie & Chanie Wenjack Fund, 2022). When harvesting T. occidentalis, it is important to respect the tree by taking small amounts (typically, amounts smaller than one’s own hand), acknowledge the spirit of the tree, and offer thanks for the medicine it provides (The Gord Downie & Chanie Wenjack Fund, 2022). These Indigenous teachings are important to keep in mind as the use of T. occidentalis has become widespread in Western medicine and research.
2.4 Medicinal Research Advancements
While the T. occidentalis leaf steam has long been used in sweat lodges and other traditional ceremonies (AIHSC, 2025), Western medicine is beginning to research and recognize the potential of the T. occidentalis plant as a whole in treating a variety of medicinal conditions.
The antioxidant properties of T. occidentalis leaf and bark have been known to Indigenous North Americans for many centuries (Storm, G.L., & Kenefic, L.S., 2022), before the formal discovery of vitamin C in 1928 by Albert Szent-Györgyi (Carpenter, 2012) which explains why white cedar tea was used as an effective treatment for scurvy (Storm, G.L., & Kenefic, L.S., 2022).
T. occidentalisessential oil vapour has been shown toexhibit antibacterial effects against multiple species of bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococcus fecalis, Acinetobacter baumannii, Hemophilus influencae, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli (Hudson et al., 2011) and Staphococcus aureus (Gonçalves, 2025). The antibacterial and antifungal effects of T. occidentalis may be attributed to the monoterpenes found in its essential oil, which work synergistically together to exhibit this antibacterial effect (Anahit Hakobjanyan et al., 2025). These monoterpenes, which are produced as secondary metabolites, are responsible for the plant’s strong fragrance (Bakkali et al., 2008) and include α-pinene, ß-pinene, Sabinene, Terpinolene, and ß-myrcene (Qureshi et al., 2016).
In vitro studies of T. occidentalis found a collection of polysaccharides that are effective in inhibiting HIV-1 (Naser et al., 2005).
In a study on mice, extract from the leaves of T. occidentalis increased the release of cytokines IL-1, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in P388C mouse macrophages (Naser et al., 2005). This was further confirmed in a study on human blood monocytes, which showed a similar increase in secretion of the aforementioned messenger proteins (Naser et al., 2005). Because cytokines (Morris et al., 2022) and tumour necrosis factors (Wang & Lin, 2008) can promote the apoptosis of cancer cells, these studies demonstrate that T. occidentalis may show potential as a cancer treatment.
When applied in the form of an ointment, T. occidentalis has been shown to be effective at treating antibiotic-resistant mastitis in cows (Drouin, 2024). The ointment was effective against mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus (Drouin, 2024). As antibiotic resistance increases in livestock, the development of new treatments will become increasingly important to combat common livestock diseases (Drouin, 2024).
3. Sage (Salviagenus)
3.1 Physiological Characteristics
Sage, known scientifically as the Salvia genus from the mint family Lamiaceae, is an aromatic and medicinal perennial evergreen subshrub that has a white woolly appearance and typically grows 60–70 cm tall, depending on the species (Sharma et al., 2019). There are over 900 species of Salvia in North America (Mossi et al., 2011), where some species of sage, like white sage (Salvia apiana), are native to North America, while other species, such as Salvia officinalis, have naturalized from the Middle East and Mediterranean (Miraj & Kiani, 2016). Sage produces grayish, crenulate leaves that grow between 2.5–8 cm long and are rich in essential oils (Figure 1), which is a major selling point for their medicinal use (Sharma et al., 2019). It has pubescent, woody stems that branch out quadrangularly and grow flowers on terminal spikes (Sharma et al., 2019). The flowers can range from pink, purple, or blue tones, depending on the species, and grow in groups of seven to ten on distant whorls (Sharma et al., 2019). The flowers are highly visible with a camphor scent that attracts butterflies, honeybees, and hummingbirds to their nectar (Sharma et al., 2019). The dry schizocarp fruit of Salvia is made of four black or brown, smooth, oblong, one-seeded nutlets (Sharma et al., 2019). The major phytochemicals in Salvia include alkaloids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, glycosidic derivatives, phenolic compounds, polyacetylenes, steroids, terpenes, and waxes (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). However, the amount of these components yielded can vary depending on environmental conditions like climate, water availability, and altitude (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). Salvia prefers cool temperate to subtropical weather in dry, hilly regions on clay soils and is commonly propagated by seeds, layering, division, and stem cuttings (Sharma et al., 2019). Seed propagation is the most effective and convenient method of propagation, particularly when planting seeds in spring (Nanos et al., 2023). In one study, S. officinalis rooting improved by up to 30% in spring compared to other months (Nanos et al., 2023).
Figure 2. The medicinal plant Salvia genus. a Salvia officinalis aromatic leaves (Hinni, 2024) b white sage leaves dried and tied in bundles in preparation for smudging (Stewart, 2021).
3.2 Spiritual Significance
Sage is an important component of the North American Indigenous medicine wheel, which represents the spiritual ideology of interconnectedness among all things (AIHSC, 2025). Indigenous peoples recognize the duality of phytotherapy and spirituality in the healing process as components that work together (Meyers, 2013). Sage is often burned in smudging ceremonies (Figure 1), which involves igniting plant material and letting it smoulder to purify ceremonial tools and people (Meyers, 2013). In sweat lodge ceremonies, which are purification rituals that use heated rocks in a domed lodge to create a physical cleansing of the body (Asikinack, 2018), the role of the sage is to rub over the body (Meyers, 2013). Spiritual healing ceremonies are considered medicinal treatments among Indigenous peoples because imbalance within an individual is a form of illness, so the plants in these ceremonies double as medicinal herbs (Krol et al., 2021). A common type of sage for spiritual ceremonies is white sage; however, there are two species of this herb, Salvia apiana and Artemisia ludoiciana, that are native to North America and used by Indigenous peoples (Meyers, 2013). S. apiana is better for treating oral and eye infections, coughs and colds, and to promote healing after childbirth (Krol et al., 2021). Meanwhile, A. ludoiciana, which belongs to the daisy family and is less aromatic, is better for pain relief, respiratory issues, and skin problems (Kellum, 2024).
3.3 Medicinal Significance
Salvia has a savoury and pepper flavour, contains vitamins like A, C, E, and K, magnesium, zinc, copper, and provides calories, protein, fibre, and carbs, which all contribute to its usefulness as an herbal medicine and benefit to the diet (Krol et al., 2021).
Salvia officinalis, or common garden sage, yields the largest amount of essential oil compared to other Salvia species, with about a 1.1– 2.8% dry weight yield (Sharma et al., 2019). Garden sage essential oil improves cognitive performance through its active phenolic constituents of rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, and quercetin that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the body by 46% at a concentration of 0.5 mg/ml (Sharma et al., 2019). Inhibition of AChE allows for the breakdown of acetylcholine, improving communication between nerve cells, and enhancing cognitive and mnemonic performance in patients with Alzheimer’s or anxiety (Sharma et al., 2019). Further, AChE inhibition promotes alertness, calmness, and contentedness (Miraj & Kiani, 2016; Sharma et al., 2019).
S. officinalis hosts a hypoglycemic effect that is beneficial for patients with type 2 diabetes by reducing blood sugar and cholesterol levels, though it does not decrease fasting blood glucose or glycosylated hemoglobin (Sharma et al., 2019). In a study byBehradmanesh et al. (2013), S. officinalis effects reduced the 2-hour postprandial glucose test.
S. officinalis works as a cancer treatment through antiproliferative action, which encourages the release of TNF-α and nitric oxide to increase the macrophage cytotoxic effect (Ghorbani &Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). As well, the sesquiterpenes caryophyllene and humulene in sage inhibit the growth of MCF-7 and HCT-116 tumour cells (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017).
The flavonoid rosmarinic acid in sage inhibits the growth of human cancer cells and was shown to combat breast cancer, colon cancer, chronic myelogenous leukemia, prostate cancer, hepatocellular cancer, and small cell lung cancer (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). The chemicals in rosmarinic acid partially inhibit the Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase pathway, which is a serine-threonine kinase that initiates cell proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and can lead to cancerous growth or developmental abnormalities when left unregulated (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017).
Caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, and ursolic acid have anti-inflammatory activities that decrease swelling and skin infections (Miraj & Kiani, 2016; Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017).
In traditional medicine, a sage poultice applied locally to the skin can relieve allergic swelling, insect bites, and skin inflammation; meanwhile, garden sage tea can treat colds, coughs, and mouth and throat inflammations (Sharma et al., 2019).
In menopause, treatment with Salvia herbal medicine can reduce hot flashes, swelling, and vaginal dryness symptoms (Pal & Dey, 2023). In a study, Moradi et al. (2023) showed that Salvia treatment reduced the frequency of menopausal hot flashes, but not their duration or intensity.
3.4 Thujone Toxicity
Salvia contains a monoterpene ketone called thujone, which is synthesized from the leaves into essential oil extract and can be toxic in large amounts due to its effect on the nervous system (Craft et al., 2017; Pal & Dey, 2023). Thujone inhibits GABA-A receptors, leading to an imbalance of inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain, which can result in seizures (Craft et al., 2017; Pal & Dey, 2023). Therefore, it is discouraged to consume sage during pregnancy, in high doses, or over long time periods (NIH, n.d.). Of the two thujone epimers, α-thujone is more toxic and more present than ß-thujone (Mossi et al., 2011; Pal & Dey, 2023). The amount of thujone in essential oils can vary depending on the soil and climate conditions during the Salvia’s extraction, as thujone is a volatile substance (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). As the Salvia plant grows, the concentration of thujone increases until the plant starts to wilt (Sharma et al., 2019).
4. Sweetgrass (Hierochloeodorata/ Anthoxanthum nitens)
4.1 Botanical Analysis
Sweetgrass is a cool-season perennial grass in the family Poaceae. In North American literature, it is usually treated as Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv., although some recent floristic and microbiome work uses the synonym Anthoxanthum nitens (Weber) Y. Schouten & Veldk. (NRCS, 2024). Sweetgrass is a rhizomatous, sod-forming grass typically 30 to 70 cm tall. Stems are hollow and smooth; leaves are flat, bright green, and 10–30 cm long. When crushed or dried, the foliage produces a strong, sweet, “vanilla-like” scent due mainly to coumarin and related phenolic compounds (Cantrell et al., 2016). The inflorescence is an open, somewhat drooping panicle 4–9 cm long. Spikelets contain three florets: the two lower florets are staminate, and the upper floret is perfect, bearing both male and female (NRCS, 2024). Sweetgrass flowers in late spring to early summer. Plants commonly exhibit low seed set and irregular seed production, which helps explain the dominance of vegetative reproduction in natural and cultivated stands (Winslow, 2000).
Sweetgrass produces extensive shallow rhizomes that allow rapid clonal spread and the formation of dense mats. These rhizomes stabilize soil in moist meadows and riparian zones and generate substantial below-ground biomass (AAFC, 2020). Because seed production and germination are often poor (around 25–30%), sweetgrass is usually propagated vegetatively. Rhizome division and transplanting of container-grown plugs are the most reliable methods in restoration and community gardens (NRCS, 2024). Rhizome segments are planted into moist, weed-free soil; under greenhouse conditions, they establish quickly and can be out-planted after a few months. Indigenous knowledge and Western agronomy both emphasize cutting rather than pulling sweetgrass to avoid damaging rhizomes. Leaves are typically harvested when long and vigorous, often in early to mid-summer, by lifting the foliage and cutting near the base while leaving a short stubble for regrowth (NRCS, 2024; Métis Nation of Ontario, 2010). Many teachings stress taking only what is needed and leaving some plants untouched, reflecting principles of “honourable harvest” and long-term population sustainability (Indigenous Corporate Training, 2012). Sweetgrass has a circumboreal distribution, occurring across northern Europe and Asia and throughout much of boreal and temperate North America (NRCS, 2024; Turner, 2018). In Canada, it is common in moist prairies, low meadows, floodplains, and the margins of wetlands.
4.2 Medicinal Significance
The characteristic sweet aroma of sweetgrass is mainly due to coumarin and coumarin glycosides concentrated in the leaves (Cantrell et al., 2016). Coumarin has recognized pharmacological activities, including venotonic and lymphagogue effects, and synthetic coumarin derivatives are used as anticoagulant drugs. However, coumarin can be hepatotoxic at high doses, and both Indigenous knowledge holders and biomedical literature advise caution with internal consumption of strong sweetgrass decoctions (Cantrell et al., 2016). Ethnobotanical records document sweetgrass teas, washes, and smokes used for respiratory infections, venereal diseases, and skin conditions by several Nations, implying antimicrobial activity (Turner, 2018; Dockstator, 2014; Métis Nation of Ontario, 2010). Experimental work on medicinal smoke from other traditional plant mixtures has shown that such smokes can reduce airborne bacterial counts by over 90% and maintain near-sterile conditions for up to 24 hours (Nautiyal et al., 2007). Although sweetgrass was not directly tested in that study, these results provide a plausible mechanism for some of the cleansing properties attributed to sweetgrass smudging. Nevertheless, coumarin and several coumarin derivatives present in sweetgrass have documented anti-inflammatory and microcirculatory effects in other contexts (Cantrell et al., 2016). Traditional uses of sweetgrass teas and washes to soothe coughs, sore throats, and irritated skin are consistent with mild anti-inflammatory, vasomodulatory, and antimicrobial actions working together (Rieger et al., 2024; Header, 2025).
A study in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry showed that sweetgrass extracts can significantly delay lipid oxidation in model systems such as lard and rapeseed oil, sometimes approaching the antioxidant performance of sage (S. officinalis) (Cantrell et al., 2016). These antioxidant properties support the traditional use of sweetgrass for general wellness, wound care, and skin protection (Dockstator, 2014). Several Nations have long used braided sweetgrass in clothing or burned as incense to deter biting insects, especially mosquitoes (Dockstator, 2014; Turner, 2018). Bioassay-guided fractionation has identified coumarin and phytol in sweetgrass extracts as important mosquito biting-deterrent compounds, with deterrent activity in laboratory trials comparable to that of DEET against Aedes aegypti (Cantrell et al., 2016). These findings validate traditional knowledge and suggest potential for sweetgrass-derived volatiles as botanically based insect deterrents, with appropriate safety evaluation.
4.3 Cultural and Spiritual Importance
Among Anishinaabe and related Algonquian-speaking peoples, sweetgrass is widely known as Wiingashk (and related spellings), often described as the “hair of Mother Earth” (Header, 2025; Indigenous Corporate Training, 2012; Dockstator, 2014). Sweetgrass is extensively braided and woven into baskets, mats, and decorative borders. Nations such as the Ojibwe, Haudenosaunee, Mi’kmaq, and Wolastoqiyik have long-standing sweetgrass basketry traditions (Turner, 2018; AAFC, 2020). Contemporary restoration initiatives explicitly aim to restore access to sweetgrass for community weavers, linking plant propagation with cultural revitalization (AAFC,2020; Métis Nation of Ontario, 2010). The braiding of three strands is itself a teaching tool, representing, for example, mind–body–spirit or love–kindness–honesty (Header, 2025).
Dried sweetgrass braids are commonly burned in smudging ceremonies. The smoke is understood to cleanse the mind and space, calm the spirit, and carry prayers (Indigenous Corporate Training, 2012; Header, 2025). The sweet, comforting fragrance functions as a form of traditional aromatherapy, which is increasingly recognized within Indigenous health programs in universities and hospitals as part of cultural safety and holistic wellness (Header, 2025; Dockstator, 2014). Sweetgrass is important to many First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities across what is now Canada, including Ojibwe (Anishinaabe), Haudenosaunee, Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), Mi’kmaq, Siksika (Blackfoot), Nlaka’pamux (Thompson), Interior Salish Peoples, Ktunaxa, Nuxalk (Bella Coola), and many others (Turner, 2018; Dockstator, 2014; Métis Nation of Ontario, 2010).
Across these diverse contexts, sweetgrass is understood not merely as a resource but as a relative, central to ceremony, identity, and relationships with the land. Recent collaborations between Indigenous communities, universities, and federal agencies aim to restore sweetgrass populations in ways that respect Indigenous governance and knowledge while also documenting its botanical and medicinal properties (AAFC, 2020; Dockstator, 2014; Stricker & Wehkamp, 2015)
5. Discussion
The interconnectedness between these sacred plants, among their botanical, medicinal, and cultural characteristics, reveals their importance within Indigenous cultures. This can also be intertwined within the departments of ecology and modern pharmacology, with cedar, sage, and sweetgrass all containing their share of uses. These species contain their own distinct biochemistry due to the wide range of environmental conditions in which they grow (Ghorbani, 2017). Cedar, known heavily for its antimicrobial essential oil use, is due to its ability to withstand wet, cold climates (Qureshi et al., 2016). The opposite is said for sage, grown in different environmental conditions, which has resulted in differences in its biochemistry, explaining the variety of terpenes that it includes (Ghorbani, 2017). The medicinal properties of these plants are a result of their chemical defence strategies that originate from the variety of conditions and climates they grow in (Ghorbani, 2017). These biological processes have allowed them to be used in many different applications, such as treating respiratory diseases, purification and restoring immunity (Manisha et al., 2025). Prepared in many different forms, such as teas, oils, and aromatic purification, the uses of these plants have been common among generations of Indigenous communities (Manisha et al., 2025); however, they are still limited in receiving the recognition they deserve (Manisha et al., 2025). These plants are not only used for medicinal purposes but also hold spiritual significance within Indigenous cultures, rooted within generations of observation, as sacred medicines (AIHSC, 2025). Cedar, sage, and sweetgrass are used to cleanse, protect, heal, and restore balance (Krol, 2021). As Indigenous culture believes in the overall well-being that includes the mind, body, and spirit, these plants share common qualities when it comes to their treatment and uses (Header, 2025). Keeping the environment in mind, as many Indigenous cultures do, these plants are often harvested respectfully, with individuals expressing gratitude for the resources provided and reducing environmental impact (Header, 2025; Indigenous Corporate Training, 2012). Many ethical challenges have arisen when it comes to the use of traditional knowledge within Western medicine and scientific research (Manisha et al, 2025). Some of the main concerns include a lack of recognition, a lack of respect, and poor benefit sharing (Manisha et al, 2025). It is difficult to identify if scientific research is supported or has originated from Indigenous traditional knowledge unless explicitly stated; however, many scientific studies fail to do so (Manisha et al, 2025). More research is needed within this department to reduce the biocultural appropriation of traditional knowledge and the exploitation of sacred medicinal plants. Together, cedar, sage, and sweetgrass provide their share of medicinal properties and spiritual significance with an Indigenous perspective. This knowledge not only improves scientific research but can help provide an avenue to more holistic, natural sources of treatment within the modern medicine world.
6. Conclusion
Indigenous cultures within North America have long recognized these sacred plants, including them in medicinal treatments and holistic practices. The review of cedar, sage, and sweetgrass displays how these plants contribute to the treatment of sickness and chronic conditions. By delving deep into their biological activity, cultural meaning and Indigenous significance, these plants have contributed to both modern medicine and the continuation of Indigenous traditional knowledge. Beyond the medicinal value, the plants are deeply rooted within Indigenous culture, holding significant value within the realms of spirituality, respect, and land-based wellness. Current scientific advancements have expanded the knowledge and understanding of these plants when it comes to their therapeutic effects; however, a lack of recognition, property rights and benefit-sharing are issues that still pose a barrier to Indigenous communities. Collaboration and communication are needed in order to honour these plants’ cultural significance while also making the most of their therapeutic effects, creating a healthier and improved community.
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